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Volume 31, Number 3, February 2004

Girls and Gaming: A Summary of the Research with Implications for Practice

Dr. Denise Agosto examines computer game use among girls and suggests how teacher-librarians can encourage girls to become equal players in the male-dominated world of gaming.

Over the last two decades, the topic of gender and computer gaming has generated much research interest. Researchers have examined a number of related issues, including the relative frequency with which girls and boys use computer games, the educational benefits of gaming and the types of games that appeal to girls. Most researchers have come to agree that although boys and girls can be equally skilled at using computers and computer games, boys are more likely than girls to choose to play with them, and children of both sexes consider both computers and computer games to be “boys’ toys” (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998, p. 14).

This article organizes the major findings from this research into thematic issues and considers the implications for teacher-librarians. It also offers practical suggestions to implement in the school library. These methods can help change the image of computer games as “boys’ toys’” to computer games as a medium of entertainment and education for all young people.

Issue #1: The computer gaming gender rift

What the research says

Most researchers agree that preschool children of both sexes exhibit equal interest in computer games, but that as girls mature, their gaming interest and time investments decline (Comber et al., 1997; Dorman, 1998; Funk & Buchman, 1996; Giaquinta, Bauer, & Levin, 1993; Leong & Hawamdeh, 1999; Mumtaz, 2001). Inkpen et. al (1994) observed girls and boys playing computer games at an interactive science museum and found that computer gaming played a major role in the boys’ lives but was merely a passing interest for the girls. For almost all girls who visited the exhibit, the depth of their interest in electronic games in their lives away from the museum did not extend to talking about and reading game magazines, trading games or expressing pride in the number they owned. The enjoyment of playing was enough to satisfy their interest (p. 392).

The age at which the gaming gender rift begins is uncertain. Some research indicates that it begins as early as kindergarten (Wilder, Mackie & Cooper, 1985), while others (Gorriz & Medina, 2000) have pinpointed this rift at roughly age 13.

Implications

The cause of girls’ declining interest in computer gaming is also uncertain. Some authors have suggested it is because most computer games have been designed for and marketed to boys (Gailey, 1996; Gorriz & Medina, 2000; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 1998). As Gorriz and Medina (2002) explain: “Unfortunately, the majority of today’s games are aimed at a male market and in addition are not of particular interest to girls….Thus, in many cases a girl’s first experience with a computer is a negative one and can turn her off of computing right from the start” (p. 42).

Although girls tend to spend less time playing computer games than boys, game playing is still the most popular use of home computers (Kafai, 1999). This means that on average, girls enter computer science courses and workshops with less computer comfort and experience than boys. Girls’ generally shallower interest in computer gaming can be an introduction to a life in which technology plays a less significant role than it does for boys.

It is important to realize that the gaming gender gap is not a mere reflection of a difference in leisure interests. Recent studies (Agosto, 2002b; Yelland & Lloyd, 2001) have shown that girls are interested in computer gaming. When discussing the web site design preferences that she and her friends share, one young woman stated: “We're game people. We like anything with games” (Agosto, 2001, p. 90). Then why do girls express reduced interest in playing computer games as they age? That is a difficult question to answer, but two likely reasons are the common perception that computer games are boys’ toys, and the disconnect between many computer games available today and girls’ game content and design preferences. (See Issues 5 and 6 below.)

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians

To help to ease the computer gaming gender rift:

• select computer games likely to appeal girls. The GirlsTech evaluation framework can facilitate the selection process;
• spread the word about girls and gaming. Share the results of this research with teachers, parents and other librarians. Discuss the issue of gender and gaming with girls; and
• create a Girls and Gaming club. Libraries as well as classrooms are ideal settings for gaming clubs to meet.

Issue #2: Negative representations of females in computer games

What the research says

Research has shown that most video game characters are male and that when female characters are used, they are often portrayed negatively (Deitz, 1998; Douglas et al., 2002; Provenzo, 1991). The research organization Children Now studied best-selling video games to determine that only 16 percent of game characters were female (Douglas et al., 2002). About half of the female characters were bystanders rather than active participants.

Worse yet, Deitz (1998) found that most female video game characters were unnaturally large-breasted, unusually thin and/or scantily dressed. Her analysis indicated that the most common role of female characters was the role of “damsel in distress.” Similarly, Provenzo (1991) has shown that females are often either victims or prizes in video games.

Implications

Under-representing and misrepresenting females in computer games can have insidious consequences, such as sending the message to users that males are the adventure seekers of our world, whereas females are either bystanders or completely absent from the action. Deitz (1998) suggested that negative representations of female characters can lead game users to internalize stereotypes of women as weak, easily victimized people and cause them to think of violence and victimization as normal, acceptable aspects of life.

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians

Teacher-librarians can help to counteract negative representations of females in computer games by:

• being conscious of the messages that computer games convey. Search for games that feature female characters in positive roles, and discuss negative representations of female characters with female and male students;
• modeling computer game usage. Librarians (especially female librarians) can serve as tech-savvy role models to offset negative images prevalent in computer games.

Issue #3: Gaming and academic achievement

What the research says

Early gaming experience can serve as motivation to study computer programming: “Computer games have provided a significant impetus for many boys to become more acquainted with computers and with programming in particular” (Culley, 1993, p. 148). It follows that young people who play games are more likely to study computer science and enter computer-related careers. Indeed, experience in computer gaming is one predictor of success in college-level computer science courses (Wilson, 2002).

Computer confidence based in gaming experience can also affect girls’ success in problem solving. Inkpen et al. (1994) learned that when the girls in their study doubted their computing abilities, they were less likely to tackle math problems that were embedded in computer math games. That is, the girls’ general uneasiness in the computer environment caused them to doubt their abilities in solving math problems, transforming their computing discomfort into mathematics discomfort as well. Subrahmanyam and Greenfield (1996) found 10- and 11-year-old girls exhibit generally poorer spatial skills than their male counterparts when playing video games. That is, the boys made smaller errors than the girls in judging speed and distance. This study showed that increased video game practice led to improvement in spatial skills, especially for children who began the study with lower-than-average spatial skills.

Finally, there is an additional educational benefit for girls who play computer games that support collaborative use. Inkpen, Booth, Klawe and Upitis (1995) found that girls who worked in pairs or small groups solved significantly more math puzzles embedded in computer games than girls who worked alone. However, the opposite was true for the boys in the study.

Implications

These studies offer more reasons to encourage girls to play computer games, adding up to the conclusion that “computer and video games provide an easy lead-in to computer literacy” (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998, p. 11). Female students continue to comprise a minority of computer science majors in both Canada and the US. In Canada, the Canadian Information Processing Society found that women comprised fewer than 25 percent of computer technology graduates in 2001 (Clow, 2002). In the US, females comprised just 16 percent of the Advanced Placement computer science test-takers in 1995 and 1996 (American Association of University Women, 1999). It is possible that boys’ computer gaming dominance is a contributing factor to this disparity.

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians

To help girls reap the academic benefits of computer gaming, teacher-librarians can:

• make computer use fun. Instead of presenting computers exclusively as educational tools, present them as tools for entertainment as well. This will help girls want to use computers, rather than making them feel that they need to use them; and
• encourage girls to play games together. Playing a game with a friend can be a confidence boost.

Issue #4: The negative effects of violent games

What the research says

Funk and Buchman (1996) surveyed Grade 7 girls and boys about their favorite video and computer games and the time they averaged playing games each week. They correlated the results of the survey with the Harter Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents to determine that increased time playing violent games was correlated with girls’ lower scores on six of the subscales, including self-esteem: “For girls, inverse relationships were found between typical time commitment and perceived Scholastic Competence, Behavioral Conduct, Social Acceptance, Athletic Competence, and Global Self-Worth (self-esteem)” (p. 28).

Implications

This study does not imply that girls should refrain from playing computer games. To do so would deprive them of related benefits (see Issue #3). Instead, it implies that teacher-librarians should take care to lead young females toward non-violent games, especially games that portray female characters in a positive light.

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians

To prevent the negative effects of violent games, teacher-librarians can:

• encourage girls to play non-violent games. Remember that violent games can do damage to girls’ self-esteem; and
• opt for web-based games over video games when recommending games to girls. In a content analysis of the 174 Web-based games recommended for children by Yahooligans.com and KidsClick.org, Agosto (2002a) found that 27 percent contained graphic violence. In light of previous findings that violence predominates in video games, this study indicates that the Web can serve as a rich source of nonviolent games.

Issue #5: Girls’ preferences in computer game content

What the research says

A number of studies have examined girls’ preferences in computer game content. Kafai (1996, 1998) asked elementary school students to design their own games. The overriding theme of most of the boys’ games was a contest between good and evil. The girls tended to favor storylines and character development. Other researchers have also shown that girls are more interested in games designed around storylines than around competition (Lawry et al., 1994; Inkpen et al., 1994). Similarly, the girls in Inkpen et. al (1994) were more interested in exploring game characters’ personalities and lives than they were in winning the games, a finding echoed by Miller, Chaika, and Groppe (1996). Some of the girls in Inkpen et. al’s study even pretended that they themselves were the characters. Unfortunately, 78.7 percent of the Web-based games that Agosto (2002a) analyzed were competitive in nature, indicating that Web-based game designers tend to think of competition as core to the concept of gaming.

Another gender-based difference that Kafai (1996) detected in her study of elementary school children’s computer game designs was in type of game locale. The girls exhibited strong preferences for real-life locales (such as houses or neighborhoods), while the boys favored fantasy locales (such as warp zones or Pac Man settings).

Using focus groups with girls in Grades 6 through 12, Miller, Chaika, and Groppe (1996) asked girls to “imagine what they would like technology to do in their wildest dream[s]” (p. 30). They also asked the study participants to critique a set of computer games. Major themes that emerged included a preference for collaboration over competition, a preference for games with educational value over those designed purely for entertainment, and a preference for games that focus on human relationships.

In their study of girls' experiences with the Phoenix Quest mathematics computer game, De Jean, Upitis, Koch, and Young (1999) found that girls expressed strong preferences for female game characters over male characters, choosing to focus the game’s interaction on the female characters.

Additionally, Subrahmanyam & Greenfield (1998) analyzed the case of Mattel’s Barbie Fashion Designer and its success in appealing to large numbers of girls. Released in November of 1996, Barbie Fashion Designer “was the first piece of entertainment software to garner a mass market with girls” (p. 46). The authors determined that Barbie Fashion Designer appealed to girls because it contained lots of nonviolent action; the user played the role of nurturer; it allowed for role-playing in a real-world situation; and it moved one of girls’ common play patterns into the digital world.

Implications

The studies above indicate that girls favor computer games that…

• eschew the conflict between good and evil;
• center on storylines and character development;
• are not competitive in nature;
• use real-life locales;
• feature strong female characters in charge of decisions and actions;
• enable users to play the role of main character, either through self-identification or through the power to make decisions;
• focus on human relationships;
• offer some educational value, as opposed to those designed purely for entertainment;
• contain nonviolent action; and
• reflect girls’ common play patterns.

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians:

To apply this research into girls’ preferences in computer game content, teacher-librarians can:

• use the 10 content characteristics listed above as selection guidelines. These characteristics can help to identify computer games likely to appeal to girls;
• help to nurture future computer game designers sensitive to girls’ needs. Until the game market begins to respond better to girls’ preferences, teacher-librarians can encourage girls to design their own games. Game design is also an excellent lead-in to the academic study of computer science;
• host a contest for the best new storyline and cast of characters for a computer game. Such a contest can capitalize on girls’ interest in stories and relationships; and
• encourage girls to write essays explaining which computer game characters are the most like themselves, or which game characters they would most like to have as friends. This activity can foster girls’ identification with existing game characters.

Issue #6: Girls’ preferences in computer game design

What the research says:

Analyzing the research also illuminates girls’ preferences in computer game design. The girls in Inkpen et al.’s (1994) study preferred playing in pairs or small groups. Mattel Inc. research indicated that girls are more interested in playing computer games with other girls than they are in playing alone; conversely, this research indicated that boys are more interested in solo play (Heyman & Berstein, 1996).

In addition to collaborative play, researchers have learned that the quality of graphic and multimedia design is of great importance to girls (Agosto, 2001; Miller, Chaika, & Groppe’s, 1996). Many girls decide whether or not a web site or game will appeal to them based on the visual design of the front page (Agosto, 2001).

Finally, research indicates that most girls prefer games that enable them to communicate with other people (Heyman & Berstein, 1996; Miller, Chaika, & Groppe, 1996). This preference seems to extend into adulthood. Jackson, Ervin, Gardner, and Schmitt (2001) found that female undergraduates used the Internet primarily for sending e-mail, whereas undergraduate males used the Internet primarily for searching for factual information.

Implications

These studies of computer game design indicate that girls prefer games that:

• enable them to play with other players, either online or in person (by sharing the same computer);
• feature abundant high quality graphic and multimedia components; and
• enable communication with other players during play.

Practical suggestions for teacher-librarians

To apply this research into girls’ preferences in computer game design, teacher-librarians can:

• use the three design characteristics listed above as selection guidelines. These characteristics can help to identify computer games likely to appeal to girls;
• take advantage of girls’ interest in graphics and multimedia. Encourage girls to use digital cameras and then teach them digital editing skills, or show them how to design simple web pages to post their own artwork; and
• make computer use a social activity. Start a computer pen pal group, or encourage girls to converse while playing games together.

Conclusion

Although much has been learned, research into girls and gaming is in a fledgling state. As research proliferates, the importance of encouraging girls to play computer games should become more widely known, and game designers will hopefully incorporate related findings into their products. Until such time, the suggestions offered in this article can encourage girls to become equal players in the world of computer gaming.

This research was commissioned by the Rutgers University Douglass Project for Rutgers Women in Math, Science and Engineering, as a part of a grant from the Toyota USA Foundation.

References:

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Author bio: An assistant professor in the College of Information Science & Technology at Drexel University, Dr. Denise E. Agosto’s major research interests include young people's information seeking in digital environments, and Hispanic and multicultural issues in children's and young adult literature and library services. She can be reached at this e-mail address.